Volume 4, Number 8

September 1991

HOW CENSORSHIP AFFECTS INTERNATIONAL NEWS: The Case of South Africa

One criticism of television news is that when it emphasizes dramatic visuals, it does so at the expense of informing the public on the issues. Television coverage of civil unrest has been blamed for inciting acts of aggression and prolonging the disputes. This is the view of the South African government. Their response had been to ban television coverage of violence.

This issue of On Balance examines what consequence the lifting of press sanctions had on Canadian television news reporting of South Africa. The effectiveness of the South African government's restrictions is also addressed.

This edition of On Balance also provides two supplemental reports. The first study explores how gasoline pricing was reported on network television during a four year period. It examines whether gasoline prices are reported when there is a price increase or decrease. It also looks at whether the networks explain the reasons for the changes in the prices they report.

The second study re-examines our analyses of international affairs and illustrates how the type of source interviewed affects the way the news is presented.

SOUTH AFRICA DURING AND AFTER CENSORSHIP: A CASE STUDY

In 1984, the South African government enacted several censorship laws on domestic and foreign news media-especially television. The censorship had two aims. The first goal was to prevent the spread of violence by restricting domestic media. The second aim was to reduce the amount of foreign press attention to violence. The South African government believed that by prohibiting reports of violence, journalists would have to provide more substantive coverage of the problems in that country. [W.A. Hachten and Anthony Giffard, The press and Apartheid: Repression and Propaganda in South Africa, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984.]

There is some evidence to suggest that this censorship law may have had the opposite effect. In one study of American television news, researchers Anthony Giffard and Lisa Cohen found that U.S. coverage of South Africa intensified after restrictions were imposed. They also found that the focus remained on the violent protests against apartheid. [Anthony, C. Giffard and Lisa Cohen, "South African TV and Censorship: Does It Reduce Negative Coverage?" Journalism Quarterly, 1989, 66:1, p. 4.]

One reason for the increased coverage could be the journalistic goal of "getting the story out." In other words, by simply restricting the press, more attention will be paid to the region. A number of journalists have spoken of their commitment to present stories on South Africa despite the restrictions imposed on them. For example, CBC reporters had been expelled from the country. After numerous efforts to renew their visas, the CBC eventually used Michael Buerk from the BBC to provide them with stories on South Africa. George Hoff, "The National's" foreign editor, noted that even with press restrictions "The National" carried 66 stories from or about South Africa from September 1988 to February 1989. As Hoff stated, "I am unhappy with the stories that were not told, but I think that these figures show we are trying to keep South Africa on page one." [George Hoff, "Picture Power," Chapter 3 in Sperling, Gerald, B. and James E. McKenzie (Eds.) Getting the Real Story: Censorship and Propaganda in South Africa., Calgary: Detselig Enterprises Limited, 1990, pp.115.]

Hoff also noted that because CBC was dependent on reporters who worked for other news services, the CBC had less control and input in the type of story that could be told.

The question is: were the Canadian television networks able to live up to their commitment of keeping the focus on South Africa during censorship? We test whether censorship made a difference by posing three questions: (1) Were the networks able to present pictures of violence during the period of restrictions? (2) Did lifting press restrictions significantly increase the amount of attention to South Africa; and (3) Did coverage during restrictions emphasize substantive issues more than when restrictions were lifted?

Two periods were content-analyzed. The first period was four months during restrictions, from 1 October 1989 to 31 January 1990. Although press restrictions were lifted on February 2, 1990, coinciding with the release of Nelson Mandela and the legalization of the African National Congress (ANC), this coverage was excluded from our analysis because the volume of attention which Mandela received might well have skewed the coverage given to the post-restriction period, and thus have skewed our results. Therefore, the study's second period commences 1 March 1990 and ends four months later on 30 June.

More Violence Shown After Restrictions were Lifted

The first question answered by the data is: did the international press corps report violence during censorship? During the censorship period, violence was presented in 17 percent of CTV but only 9 percent of CBC visuals about South Africa (figure A). For both networks, the proportion of depictions about vio-

The South African government believed that by prohibiting reports of violence, journalists would have to provide more substantive coverage of the problems in that country.

lence increased slightly when censorship was lifted. At the same time, descriptions of violence in the narrative component of the news decreased after restrictions were lifted. This indicates that the South African government narrowed what could be filmed but it did not, or could not, narrow what could be told.

Click here to view Figure A: Visuals Shown on South Africa During and After Restrictions

There is no reason to believe that violence decreased either in the period during the censorship or after it. According to South African reports, the state of emergency was having a partial effect in reducing violence. From 1984 to 1988 acts of terrorism continued to increase. In 1987 there were 4994 acts of violence. This figure increased to 5208 acts of violence in 1988. [March 18, 1989, Keesing's Record of World Events.] In 1990 the violence continued-the only difference being that the groups fighting changed from police against blacks to black groups fighting each other.

Lifting Press Restrictions Increases Attention to South Africa

Attention to South Africa increased when the restrictions were lifted. Almost two-thirds of the network coverage during the eight months we analyzed was from the non-censorship period. A total of 3, 287 CBC and 1, 809 CTV statements on South Africa were identified for the eight month period. The imposed press restrictions limited CBC's reports to only 36.8 percent of attention and CTV's reports to only 34.9 percent of that network's attention to South Africa.

It must be noted that this test is imperfect. While we excluded from our sample the period when Nelson Mandela was released, the emphasis on him during the post restriction period may still have influenced the findings. Nevertheless, while in our analyzed period the number of statements on South Africa during the restrictions was substantially less than when the restrictions were lifted, the country still enjoyed considerable media coverage even with censorship. The 1,112 CBC and 632 CTV statements made during restrictions were presented in 36 CBC and 38 CTV stories. An examination of the number of stories versus the number of statements reveals that during the period of press restrictions, the number of stories about South Africa accounted for 42 percent of CBC and 45 percent of CTV overall coverage. In other words, the number of stories about South Africa increased only slightly when restrictions were lifted. What really changed was the length of story.

CBC Focuses more on Issues During Censorship

CBC provided more of a substantive discussion about the problems of South Africa during the restriction period than did CTV. Figure B on page 3 illustrates the amount of coverage that substantive issues received both before and after

. . . British reporters may have been predisposed to examine the context and discuss the substantive issues faced by South Africa . . .

restrictions were lifted. An analysis of substantive statements, such as those about sanctions, or about causes and solutions, reveals that CBC paid more attention to the issues during restrictions than did CTV. Further, CBC presented more coverage of these issues during the restriction period than when restrictions were lifted. In contrast, CTV's attention to the issues did not change during the two periods.

Click here to view Figure B: Statements on South Africa During and After Restrictions

One explanation for the difference in coverage between the two networks is that CBC was prevented from using its own reporters during the censorship period. CBC borrowed reporters from the BBC. In contrast, CTV was not restricted in the same way as CBC. In addition to using their own reporters, CTV also relied heavily on American feeds. The British government's attitude toward South Africa differed from those of the United States and Canada. According to Richard Ser-

. . . the number of stories about South Africa increased only slightly when restrictions were lifted. What really changed was the length of story.

gay, the pictures of violence that preceded the press restrictions "sparked U.S. sanctions against South Africa." In contrast, Britain was always reluctant to impose sanctions on South Africa. Consequently, British reporters may have been predisposed to examine the context and discuss the substantive issues faced by South Africa-issues that the South African government intended the media to focus on when it imposed press restrictions. In contrast, since the coverage of the violence in South Africa influenced the U.S. government to impose sanctions, American reporters may have been less inclined to provide the types of stories that the South African government preferred.

Censorship has Limited Effect on Television Coverage

In sum, the South African government has been partially successful in changing the international news agenda. For CTV, the South African government's attempt to control the foreign press agenda may have influenced the environment for getting news out and may have limited some of the coverage, but it did not effectively eliminate the coverage of violence or direct attention to other areas. Analysis of the statements made on the nightly CTV newscasts showed that proportionately more attention was placed on the unrest during the censorship period than after the censorship period. For CBC, however, their use of BBC reports did change the nature of their coverage in a direction that the South African government might have preferred.

While the South African government may have limited the news, it did not stop the news or effectively redirect it. It appears that journalists have strong feelings about South Africa and those sentiments cannot be changed by restricting access. The admission of journalists that they consciously tried to keep South Africa on page one, coupled with their ability to present stories and pictures from that country, illustrates their immunity from manipulation by governments.

GAS PRICING

The price for gasoline can fluctuate on a weekly if not a daily basis. The reasons for the price changes are not always apparent to consumers. Larry Clausen, President of the Petroleum Communication Foundation, found that consumers are critical of the oil companies' role in pricing. He explains that the consumer's perception is that oil companies unfairly price gasoline that is sold at the pumps. In the Petroleum Communication Foundation's recent newsletter, Clausen explains that the price for gasoline is actually quite low: "The reality about gasoline pricing is that Canadian consumers are getting a great deal at the pump. Prices-less taxes and in real dollars-are roughly where they were in the early 1980s. Prices are so low, in fact, that most companies selling gasoline today can't even cover the costs of refining and marketing." [Larry Clausen, "Let's Put Communication at the Top of the Agenda," Connections, Petroleum Communication Foundation: Calgary, 1991, Vol. 3, No. 4, p. 3.]

This study examines how the networks reported gasoline pricing over a four year period. The rationale for using such a large time span is to provide a long term perspective. The purpose of this study is twofold. The first objective is to see when pricing is reported. Do the networks report increases in gas pricing in the same proportion as decreases in pricing? The second objective is to examine whether the networks explain the changes in gas prices.

Gasoline Pricing Given Little Attention in Network News

While the industry may be sensitive to consumers' concerns over the price of gasoline, this is not an issue that is

"The reality about gasoline pricing is that Canadian consumers are getting a great deal at the pump. Prices-less taxes and in real dollars-are roughly where they were in the early 1980s . . ."

frequently reported on national television news. The price of gas and its fluctuations were seldom reported on the nightly newscasts of CBC and CTV. During the four year period analyzed in this study, the change in the price of gasoline was mentioned 92 times on CBC and 78 times on CTV. Fifty-eight percent of CBC's and 56 percent of CTV's stories on gas pricing were reported in 1990. The anxiety over the effect of the Gulf war on the oil industry was one of the main factors in the increased reporting of pricing in this period.

The Bad News is . . . Good News is No News

In our examination of the first research question, we found that increases in gas pricing are not reported in the same frequency as the decreases in pricing. The changes in the Canadian average price of unleaded gasoline were compared to the way in which the networks reported the price of gas. As figure C shows, during the last four years the price of gasoline increased in half of the months examined. Television attention to gas prices focused on these increases. Eight in 10 mentions of gas prices during the study's four year period period indicated an increase.

Click here to view Figure C: T.V. Coverage of Gas Prices Compared to Real World Price Changes

In contrast, the price of gas fell 30 percent of the time during the same period. However, the networks focused on these decreases in only 15 percent of CBC and 14 percent of CTV coverage of pricing. The remaining 1 percent of CBC and 6 percent of CTV coverage mentioned that there was no change in the price of gas. Periods where the price of gas remained constant comprised 19 percent of the months analyzed.

Figure D illustrates that total attention to gas pricing peaked during the Gulf crisis. This peak occurred just before the price of gasoline reached 66 cents a litre. While the sharp price increase enjoyed considerable media attention, the even greater price decrease in February received no similar media attention.

Click here to view Figure D: Unleaded Gas Prices Compared wtih Total Attention to Oil and Gas Industry

Changes in Gas Prices Given Little Explanation

The second objective of this study was to question whether the networks explained the change in pricing. In fact, we found that the networks did not provide very much analysis of the changes they reported. Of the coverage reporting a price increase, only 29 percent of CBC and 24 percent of CTV attention explained why the increase occurred.

When the networks reported a price increase, the most frequent causes mentioned were the Gulf crisis, taxes and increases in world oil prices.

Gasoline Prices Presented as a National Issue

Gas pricing was reported when it affected national prices. In total, only 11 percent of CBC and 5 percent of CTV statements focused on international gas pricing. Of the remaining statements that discussed gas pricing in Canada, 82 percent of CBC and 91 percent of CTV coverage was national in focus.

Increases in Taxes Highlight Coverage of Ontario

Although the Alberta economy is most closely affected by the oil industry, CTV did not highlight that province in stories about the oil industry and the price of gasoline. Of the statements that focused on the regions, 40 percent of CBC and 71 percent of CTV coverage

. . . total attention to gas pricing peaked during the Gulf crisis . . .

concerned Ontario. The attention to Ontario reflects the mention of gas increases in the coverage of the provincial budget. For example, on 17 May 1989 Lloyd Robertson reported: "The gasoline tax goes up in Ontario by a cent a litre now and another cent January 1st." Similarly, on 29 April 1991, CBC's Paul Hunter reported on the Ontario budget: "But there are new taxes for cigarettes, alcohol, gas and gas guzzling new cars."

CBC did focus on Alberta in 35 percent of its coverage compared to only 15 percent attention by CTV on that province. CBC's attention, however, was largely due to one story presented on 25 October 1991. That story examined the negative impact the low price of oil was having on the Alberta economy. Knowlton Nash introduced the story in the following manner: "In the oil fields of Alberta, the pumping derricks are resting, profits are going and layoffs are coming. The province is still floating on oil, but world oil prices have sunk."

Results of gas pricing are based on census samples of 32 "National" 12 "Journal" 4 "Sunday Report" and 5 "Venture" stories, as well as 42 "CTV News" stories which mentioned gas pricing from January 1988 to November 1991.

INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS SOURCES

We have frequently noted that the type of source used in reporting major public policy issues can affect how we think about those issues. When the issue is international in scope, the people used as sources on television become even more influential in our understanding of the events. Few Canadians have the opportunity to experience first hand all the changes that are occurring internationally. The reporters and their sources provide many Canadians with their only view of these events.

During the past few years, the National Media Archive has analyzed television coverage of international affairs. These studies have included elections, press bans, and even a war. We have compiled the data from all these studies to examine whom the networks chose as sources in these various issues.

On average, journalists' statements comprised 55 percent of CBC and 59 percent of CTV international affairs coverage. The volume of statements originating from journalists differed depending on the issue. Coverage of the Nicaraguan election campaign, German unification and South Africa contained more statements from reporters than did the coverage of the Gulf crisis and war.

Click here to view Figure E: Sources' Statements

On CBC, U.S. Sources Provided Highest Proportion of Statements in Nicaraguan Election Coverage

The volume of statements from various types of sources also differed according to the subject matter. For example, U.S. sources were interviewed in the highest proportion during the Nicaraguan election campaign. On CBC, academic sources were given proportionately more coverage on German unification and the crisis in South Africa. On CTV, academics were most often asked for their views in the Gulf war.

The use of person-on-the-street interviews also changed from issue to issue. In reporting German unification both networks provided a significant amount of attention to the public (24 percent of CBC and 21 percent of CTV sources' statements). In CBC's coverage of South Africa, statements from average citizens were also emphasized.

The public perspective in the coverage of German unification and South Africa illustrates an interesting trend in international affairs coverage. It appears that long-term coverage of a region offers more opportunity for the networks to give background on the lifestyles of the individuals in those countries. In contrast, issues that are episodic, or have a set time frame, such as the Nicaraguan election campaign, or the Gulf crisis and war, tend to focus on official sources or academics to provide the context.

CBC Uses Academic Sources

On CBC, academic sources were interviewed in high proportions for every issue except the Nicaraguan election campaign. On CBC, the focus on academics reflects the format of the "Journal." For CTV, the most attention academic sources received was during the Gulf war. Interestingly, CTV changed its format during the war to include a "Gulf Situation Crisis Room." This format provided the networks with the opportunity to elicit comments from academic experts.

Given the attention to the Allied coalition and politics of the Gulf crisis, our finding that the most frequently cited source was Allied government representatives is consistent. Almost one-third of CBC and over one-third of CTV sources' statements originated from the American, British, Canadian and other Allied governments.

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